LANGUAGE AND USE
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English Punctuation 1
In these days of “rapid living” when all communication is short and sweet, we - more often than not - do away with punctuation. Think of text messaging in our cell phones for example, who goes to pains to include full stops, question marks or commas? Hardly anybody, but the one who really takes great pains to decode those messages is the receiver!
As language teachers, we should always make emphasis on the use of punctuation as it is essential for effective written communication.
English punctuation is not difficult at all, what is more, punctuation marks are used in the same way as in other languages and if there are a few differences, they will be easily mastered.
Let´s start by dividing our speech:
Period (or full stop)
The period marks the end of a sentence but it is also used in abbreviations and contractions.
Nowadays, however, there is a tendency to do away with the period in acronyms. That is why abbreviations of countries, companies and organizations are written without periods:
e.g. BBC USA UNICEF NATO
Something very similar happens with abbreviations of units; they should never take the period:
e.g. m (meters) g (grams) min (minutes)
The period is also used to mark the decimal point when expressing quantity.
e.g. $45.87 76.98 metres
If we want to indicate a break in speech or an incomplete quotation, we can resort to a series of full stops at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
e.g. “Annemarie listened and said nothing …”
“…or to call him and brief him on the subject.”
Exclamation mark
The exclamation mark comes after you exclaim or shout something. It shows a strong emotion on the part of the speaker:
Wow! Oh, my God!
We can also use it when we want to mark a strong order:
Come here, now! Stop that!
Or in exclamations introduced by how and what:
What a boy! How good!
There is an important issue to point out as regards exclamation marks; we should never use more than one of them, although it is a common practice nowadays and it may be alright in very informal, private writing, it is considered VULGAR in more FORMAL writing.
We should never use a period as well as an exclamation mark. Exclamation marks replace full stops. The only exception is when the period is indicating an abbreviation as in the example.
e.g. My brother finally got his M.A.!
Question Mark
Question marks offer no problem; they are used after all direct questions
e.g. Is John in?
We must remember that they are not used in indirect questions such as:
e.g. I would like to know what time he will be coming.
We should never use a period as well as a question mark. Question marks replace full stops. The only exception is when the period is indicating an abbreviation as in the example.
e.g. Are you still working for Brown, Johnson and Co.?
Inverted commas (or quotation marks)
Inverted commas are the markers of direct speech, they should be used at the beginning and end of each utterance and they may be single (‘) or double (“). When we want to mark speech within speech both styles come in handy:
e.g. “She says ‘wow’ whenever she sees a boy she likes.”
Quotation marks are also used to highlight names in different types of text, especially when we mention books, films, plays or the names of any other inanimate objects.
e.g. She read “Robin Hood” from beginning to end.
Inverted commas are also used to signal a quotation or an ironical remark
e.g. Listen to the recording again, she said “ship” not “sheep”.
Well, it is now the right time to quote the famous British playwright and say: “to be or not to be, that is the question.”
Comma
The comma separates words. It is used to mark a natural pause, to make something clear or as a stylistic device. Let us analyze its use.
When we use a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, the subordinate clause comes before the main one and thus we have a natural pause at the end of the introduction: we need a comma there.
e.g. If they had seen the road sign in time, they wouldn’t have rolled down the cliff.
A couple of points to bear in mind as regards the use of the comma with AND:
If we use two or more adjectives of the same weight before a noun you need a comma or AND
e.g. Her son is a handsome, clever guy. (or handsome and clever guy)
On the other hand, if we use two adjectives of different weight (one expressing opinion and the other one fact), we cannot join them with the word AND – we do not need a comma.
e.g. Her son is a short clever guy.
In the case of enumerations some people prefer the comma to avoid confusion by stressing that the last two items mentioned do not belong together.
e.g. The man carried with him fishing equipment, a tent, tins containing food, and his dog.
The absence of the comma in this case may convey the meaning that his dog was inside the tins!
We sometimes include side comments in sentences. As in many other languages, these appositions, interjections, interpolations and parenthetical phrases are always between commas.
e.g. Chris, usually such a chatterbox, was silent at that time.
It’s easier, I believe, if you call a plumber.
We use a comma in participle clauses where there is always a natural pause.
e.g. Having nothing else to say, she got into the car and left.
In the case of relative clauses we choose to write commas when we add an extra comment, i.e. when the relative clause adds extra information but is not essential to complete the meaning of the sentence.
e.g. Car racers, who sleep few hours, take a great risk.
If we remove the relative clause here, we still keep the meaning of what we want to communicate. However, no commas are needed when the relative clause is a defining one.
e.g. Car racers who sleep few hours take a great risk.
The absence of commas here indicates a change of meaning. Only those racers who sleep little run risks.
The comma is also used to introduce direct speech.
e.g. He said, “Don’t be late again, please!”
More often than not we have a natural pause when conjunctive adverbs come at the beginning of the sentence; in this case we need a comma. The following are some of the most common conjunctions which are followed by a comma: besides, in fact, therefore, moreover, no doubt, of course, accordingly, however, consequently and namely
e.g. In fact, he didn’t know the right answer.
We sometimes use commas to mark the names of people we are addressing.
E.g. John, come with me now.
Yes and No are always marked off by a comma.
e.g. No, I can’t play tennis well.
Commas are also used before question tags.
e.g. He will call back, won’t he?
Dash
The dash is used instead of the parentheses or commas in side comments.
e.g. Her stories – true or false – should be analyzed by a psychologist.
A single dash may be used as a stylistic device at the end of a sentence to add an unexpected comment or conclusion.
e.g. Don’t worry! He is very considerate. He will surely invite you to the play this evening – if he can get tickets for the performance.
A dash can indicate a pause or break in speech. e.g. “Well - you know – he is still alive.”
Colon
The colon is mostly used before a series of elements as a substitute for namely, i.e. and such as among others.
e.g. There are quite a number of things to get hold of for the outing: camping equipment, insect repellant, suntan lotion, some food, board games, a torch, some clothes …
The colon also signals an explanation.
e.g. Her failure is the result of only one thing: her stubbornness.
However, we should never use the colon to mark off a comment or explanation in the middle of the sentence.
You can also use the colon before you state a reason or consequence.
e.g. You will have to sit for the exam again: you haven’t studied hard enough.
Sometimes the colon can be useful in place of BUT to mark a contrasting idea in a sentence.
e.g. The car repairs will take two weeks: we are leaving on holidays in five days.
Semicolon
The semicolon is stronger than a comma but weaker than the full stop. It marks a strong connection between two independent clauses.
e.g. Use my insect repellant; it will help you
The semicolon is used in sentences where there are too many commas to signal sentence division.
e.g. Our old house was more spacious, more comfortable, more modern; and besides, it was a block away from our children’s school.
It also helps to avoid confusion.
e.g. The article was finished by Sue; Tim and Jane were too busy working with the layout of the cover.
Sometimes it is needed before conjunctions such as beside, moreover, therefore, however or furthermore to mark a slight pause.
e.g. Doing sports is good for the body; what’s more, it’s great for the mind.
Apostrophe
The apostrophe is typical of the English language and it is used much more than in any other languages. It can be used to indicate omissions, plurals or as a mark of possession.
Omissions
When we contract two words, we use the apostrophe to indicate that one or more letters are missing.
e.g. I’ve = I have
We’ll = we will
In the case of numbers we also use the apostrophe to show that some figures are missing.
In ´92 = In 1992
We use the apostrophe when we want to mark the absence of a letter in certain dialects or when we wish to signal unusual pronunciations of certain words.
e.g. Guns ‘n’ Roses
The apostrophe is also used in the plural of numbers. Bear in mind that in American English this case is becoming less usual, though.
e.g. In the 1920’s (BE) = In the 1920s (AE)
Remove all the 4’s from the quiz (BE) = Remove all the 4s from the quiz (AE)
If there is a possibility of misunderstanding and we cannot use any other type of marker in our written piece, we can resort to the apostrophe as in the example:
e.g. Be careful, the word “excellent” takes two l‘s
Genitive We could say that the apostrophe is the backbone of the possessive case in English, we recommend you consult our Language and Use section and find an article on its use.
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English Punctuation 1
In these days of “rapid living” when all communication is short and sweet, we - more often than not - do away with punctuation. Think of text messaging in our cell phones for example, who goes to pains to include full stops, question marks or commas? Hardly anybody, but the one who really takes great pains to decode those messages is the receiver!
As language teachers, we should always make emphasis on the use of punctuation as it is essential for effective written communication.
English punctuation is not difficult at all, what is more, punctuation marks are used in the same way as in other languages and if there are a few differences, they will be easily mastered.
Let´s start by dividing our speech:
Period (or full stop)
The period marks the end of a sentence but it is also used in abbreviations and contractions.
Nowadays, however, there is a tendency to do away with the period in acronyms. That is why abbreviations of countries, companies and organizations are written without periods:
e.g. BBC USA UNICEF NATO
Something very similar happens with abbreviations of units; they should never take the period:
e.g. m (meters) g (grams) min (minutes)
The period is also used to mark the decimal point when expressing quantity.
e.g. $45.87 76.98 metres
If we want to indicate a break in speech or an incomplete quotation, we can resort to a series of full stops at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
e.g. “Annemarie listened and said nothing …”
“…or to call him and brief him on the subject.”
Exclamation mark
The exclamation mark comes after you exclaim or shout something. It shows a strong emotion on the part of the speaker:
Wow! Oh, my God!
We can also use it when we want to mark a strong order:
Come here, now! Stop that!
Or in exclamations introduced by how and what:
What a boy! How good!
There is an important issue to point out as regards exclamation marks; we should never use more than one of them, although it is a common practice nowadays and it may be alright in very informal, private writing, it is considered VULGAR in more FORMAL writing.
We should never use a period as well as an exclamation mark. Exclamation marks replace full stops. The only exception is when the period is indicating an abbreviation as in the example.
e.g. My brother finally got his M.A.!
Question Mark
Question marks offer no problem; they are used after all direct questions
e.g. Is John in?
We must remember that they are not used in indirect questions such as:
e.g. I would like to know what time he will be coming.
We should never use a period as well as a question mark. Question marks replace full stops. The only exception is when the period is indicating an abbreviation as in the example.
e.g. Are you still working for Brown, Johnson and Co.?
Inverted commas (or quotation marks)
Inverted commas are the markers of direct speech, they should be used at the beginning and end of each utterance and they may be single (‘) or double (“). When we want to mark speech within speech both styles come in handy:
e.g. “She says ‘wow’ whenever she sees a boy she likes.”
Quotation marks are also used to highlight names in different types of text, especially when we mention books, films, plays or the names of any other inanimate objects.
e.g. She read “Robin Hood” from beginning to end.
Inverted commas are also used to signal a quotation or an ironical remark
e.g. Listen to the recording again, she said “ship” not “sheep”.
Well, it is now the right time to quote the famous British playwright and say: “to be or not to be, that is the question.”
Comma
The comma separates words. It is used to mark a natural pause, to make something clear or as a stylistic device. Let us analyze its use.
When we use a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, the subordinate clause comes before the main one and thus we have a natural pause at the end of the introduction: we need a comma there.
e.g. If they had seen the road sign in time, they wouldn’t have rolled down the cliff.
A couple of points to bear in mind as regards the use of the comma with AND:
If we use two or more adjectives of the same weight before a noun you need a comma or AND
e.g. Her son is a handsome, clever guy. (or handsome and clever guy)
On the other hand, if we use two adjectives of different weight (one expressing opinion and the other one fact), we cannot join them with the word AND – we do not need a comma.
e.g. Her son is a short clever guy.
In the case of enumerations some people prefer the comma to avoid confusion by stressing that the last two items mentioned do not belong together.
e.g. The man carried with him fishing equipment, a tent, tins containing food, and his dog.
The absence of the comma in this case may convey the meaning that his dog was inside the tins!
We sometimes include side comments in sentences. As in many other languages, these appositions, interjections, interpolations and parenthetical phrases are always between commas.
e.g. Chris, usually such a chatterbox, was silent at that time.
It’s easier, I believe, if you call a plumber.
We use a comma in participle clauses where there is always a natural pause.
e.g. Having nothing else to say, she got into the car and left.
In the case of relative clauses we choose to write commas when we add an extra comment, i.e. when the relative clause adds extra information but is not essential to complete the meaning of the sentence.
e.g. Car racers, who sleep few hours, take a great risk.
If we remove the relative clause here, we still keep the meaning of what we want to communicate. However, no commas are needed when the relative clause is a defining one.
e.g. Car racers who sleep few hours take a great risk.
The absence of commas here indicates a change of meaning. Only those racers who sleep little run risks.
The comma is also used to introduce direct speech.
e.g. He said, “Don’t be late again, please!”
More often than not we have a natural pause when conjunctive adverbs come at the beginning of the sentence; in this case we need a comma. The following are some of the most common conjunctions which are followed by a comma: besides, in fact, therefore, moreover, no doubt, of course, accordingly, however, consequently and namely
e.g. In fact, he didn’t know the right answer.
We sometimes use commas to mark the names of people we are addressing.
E.g. John, come with me now.
Yes and No are always marked off by a comma.
e.g. No, I can’t play tennis well.
Commas are also used before question tags.
e.g. He will call back, won’t he?
Dash
The dash is used instead of the parentheses or commas in side comments.
e.g. Her stories – true or false – should be analyzed by a psychologist.
A single dash may be used as a stylistic device at the end of a sentence to add an unexpected comment or conclusion.
e.g. Don’t worry! He is very considerate. He will surely invite you to the play this evening – if he can get tickets for the performance.
A dash can indicate a pause or break in speech. e.g. “Well - you know – he is still alive.”
Colon
The colon is mostly used before a series of elements as a substitute for namely, i.e. and such as among others.
e.g. There are quite a number of things to get hold of for the outing: camping equipment, insect repellant, suntan lotion, some food, board games, a torch, some clothes …
The colon also signals an explanation.
e.g. Her failure is the result of only one thing: her stubbornness.
However, we should never use the colon to mark off a comment or explanation in the middle of the sentence.
You can also use the colon before you state a reason or consequence.
e.g. You will have to sit for the exam again: you haven’t studied hard enough.
Sometimes the colon can be useful in place of BUT to mark a contrasting idea in a sentence.
e.g. The car repairs will take two weeks: we are leaving on holidays in five days.
Semicolon
The semicolon is stronger than a comma but weaker than the full stop. It marks a strong connection between two independent clauses.
e.g. Use my insect repellant; it will help you
The semicolon is used in sentences where there are too many commas to signal sentence division.
e.g. Our old house was more spacious, more comfortable, more modern; and besides, it was a block away from our children’s school.
It also helps to avoid confusion.
e.g. The article was finished by Sue; Tim and Jane were too busy working with the layout of the cover.
Sometimes it is needed before conjunctions such as beside, moreover, therefore, however or furthermore to mark a slight pause.
e.g. Doing sports is good for the body; what’s more, it’s great for the mind.
Apostrophe
The apostrophe is typical of the English language and it is used much more than in any other languages. It can be used to indicate omissions, plurals or as a mark of possession.
Omissions
When we contract two words, we use the apostrophe to indicate that one or more letters are missing.
e.g. I’ve = I have
We’ll = we will
In the case of numbers we also use the apostrophe to show that some figures are missing.
In ´92 = In 1992
We use the apostrophe when we want to mark the absence of a letter in certain dialects or when we wish to signal unusual pronunciations of certain words.
e.g. Guns ‘n’ Roses
The apostrophe is also used in the plural of numbers. Bear in mind that in American English this case is becoming less usual, though.
e.g. In the 1920’s (BE) = In the 1920s (AE)
Remove all the 4’s from the quiz (BE) = Remove all the 4s from the quiz (AE)
If there is a possibility of misunderstanding and we cannot use any other type of marker in our written piece, we can resort to the apostrophe as in the example:
e.g. Be careful, the word “excellent” takes two l‘s
Genitive We could say that the apostrophe is the backbone of the possessive case in English, we recommend you consult our Language and Use section and find an article on its use.
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